Theoretical Assumptions of Critical Theory and the Frankfurt School
Critical Theory, as developed by the Frankfurt School, operates on several foundational theoretical assumptions. One of the core assumptions is the critique of positivism, which posits that empirical science alone cannot provide a comprehensive understanding of society. Critical theorists argue that knowledge is not neutral but is shaped by social power dynamics and interests. This is captured in Max Horkheimer's assertion that “the facts which our senses present to us are socially preformed in two ways: through the historical character of the object perceived and through the historical character of the perceiving organ.”
Another key assumption is the concept of totality—the idea that social phenomena must be understood within the context of the whole society. Theorists like Theodor Adorno emphasized that culture, economy, politics, and ideology are interconnected and cannot be studied in isolation. As Adorno famously stated, “The whole is the false,” indicating that society's apparent wholeness conceals underlying contradictions and injustices.
Additionally, Critical Theory assumes that society is inherently conflictual, with social structures shaped by power relations. This perspective is deeply influenced by Marxist theory, particularly the idea of class struggle. However, the Frankfurt School expanded this to include other forms of domination, such as those related to culture and ideology.
Origins and Early Development of the Frankfurt School
The Frankfurt School, formally known as the Institute for Social Research, was founded in 1923 at the University of Frankfurt in Germany. It emerged in response to the limitations of traditional Marxism and aimed to develop a more nuanced understanding of society that accounted for changes in capitalism and culture in the 20th century. The school was initially led by Carl Grünberg, but it gained its distinct intellectual character under the leadership of Max Horkheimer, who became director in 1930.
The early development of the Frankfurt School was shaped by the socio-political context of Weimar Germany, the rise of fascism, and the challenges posed by Stalinist communism. The theorists associated with the Frankfurt School sought to understand why revolutionary change, as predicted by Marx, had not occurred in advanced capitalist societies. Their response was to explore how culture and ideology functioned to maintain social control, even in the absence of overt repression.
One of the seminal works of this period is Horkheimer's Traditional and Critical Theory (1937), where he differentiates between traditional theory, which aims to describe and explain the world, and critical theory, which seeks to change it. He argues, “Critical theory… seeks to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them.”
Development and Key Thinkers
Key figures in the Frankfurt School included Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Walter Benjamin, among others. Adorno, along with Horkheimer, co-authored Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944), which is a foundational text in Critical Theory. In this work, they argue that the Enlightenment's promise of human emancipation has been betrayed, leading instead to new forms of domination through rationality and culture. One of their most famous critiques is of the culture industry, which they believe commodifies cultural products and promotes passive consumption, thereby reinforcing the status quo.
Herbert Marcuse, another prominent member, is known for his work One-Dimensional Man (1964), where he argues that advanced industrial society creates a "one-dimensional" form of consciousness that limits critical thought and reinforces conformity. He posits that “the people recognize themselves in their commodities; they find their soul in their automobile, hi-fi set, split-level home, kitchen equipment.”
Walter Benjamin, though not formally a member, was closely associated with the Frankfurt School and contributed significantly to its intellectual milieu. His essay "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1935) explores how mass production changes the function of art, stripping it of its "aura" and potentially democratizing culture, but also making it more susceptible to manipulation by the culture industry.
Conclusion
The theoretical assumptions of Critical Theory and the Frankfurt School are rooted in a deep skepticism of positivism, an emphasis on understanding society as a totality, and a recognition of the pervasive influence of power relations in shaping knowledge and culture. The Frankfurt School's origins in early 20th-century Germany, along with its development through the contributions of key thinkers like Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse, and Benjamin, have left a lasting impact on social theory, emphasizing the importance of critique in the pursuit of human emancipation. As Horkheimer articulated, “The critical theory of society… is suspicious of the very categories of stability, identity, and regularity, of which positivism is so proud.”