New Criticism: Overview and Key Concepts
New Criticism is a school of literary theory and criticism that emerged in the early 20th century, particularly in the United States and Britain. It emphasizes the close reading of texts, focusing on the text itself rather than external contexts such as the author's intentions, historical background, or the reader's response. New Criticism advocates for an objective analysis of a literary work's formal elements—such as imagery, metaphor, symbolism, and structure—to uncover its meaning and aesthetic value. This approach posits that a literary work should be treated as a self-contained, autonomous entity.
Important Contributors to New Criticism
I.A. Richards
Role and Contributions: I.A. Richards, a British literary critic, is considered one of the pioneers of New Criticism. His work, particularly in Practical Criticism (1929), laid the foundation for this movement. Richards introduced the practice of close reading and emphasized the importance of analyzing a text without preconceived notions. His method involved giving students poems without providing any information about the author or context, encouraging them to interpret the text based solely on its language and form. Richards also introduced key concepts such as "ambiguity" and "tension," which became central to New Criticism.
Key Concepts: Richards emphasized the importance of the reader’s response in discovering multiple layers of meaning within a text. His focus on ambiguity and the emotional effects of literature influenced subsequent New Critics to consider how complex meanings are conveyed through literary language.
T.S. Eliot
Role and Contributions: T.S. Eliot, a prominent poet and critic, played a significant role in shaping New Criticism through his essays and literary criticism. In his influential essay "Tradition and the Individual Talent" (1919), Eliot argued that a poet's work should be evaluated based on its relationship to the literary tradition, rather than as an expression of personal emotion. He introduced the idea of the "objective correlative," suggesting that emotions in poetry should be conveyed through concrete images and situations rather than direct expression.
Key Concepts: Eliot’s concept of the "objective correlative" became a cornerstone of New Criticism, emphasizing the need for a direct, tangible representation of emotions in literature. His insistence on the impersonality of the artist influenced the New Critics' focus on the text rather than the author.
John Crowe Ransom
Role and Contributions: John Crowe Ransom, an American critic and poet, is often credited with coining the term "New Criticism" in his 1941 book The New Criticism. Ransom’s work advocated for the rigorous analysis of the formal elements of literature, such as meter, rhyme, and structure. He believed that the meaning of a poem lies in its form and that a text should be understood through its intricate interplay of language and literary devices.
Key Concepts: Ransom emphasized the importance of formal elements in creating the aesthetic and emotional effects of literature. He argued that criticism should focus on these aspects, rather than on historical or biographical contexts.
Cleanth Brooks
Role and Contributions: Cleanth Brooks, an American literary critic, is one of the most influential figures in New Criticism. His books, such as The Well Wrought Urn (1947), became seminal texts in the movement. Brooks argued that the meaning of a poem is derived from the interrelationship of its elements, rather than from any external context. He introduced the concept of "paradox" as a central feature of poetry, highlighting how seemingly contradictory elements in a text contribute to its overall meaning.
Key Concepts: Brooks’ concept of "paradox" and his focus on the "organic unity" of the text—where all parts of a literary work are interrelated and contribute to its overall meaning—are key contributions to New Criticism. He argued that good literature contains a complexity that can only be understood through close analysis of its form.
W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley
Role and Contributions: W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley are best known for their essay "The Intentional Fallacy" (1946), which argues against the use of an author's intentions as a guide for interpreting a text. They contended that the meaning of a literary work should be derived from the text itself, not from external information about the author’s personal life or creative intentions. They also introduced the concept of the "affective fallacy," which criticizes the practice of evaluating a text based on the emotional responses it elicits from readers.
Key Concepts: The "Intentional Fallacy" and "Affective Fallacy" are central to New Criticism. These ideas reinforced the movement's emphasis on the text's autonomy and the importance of objective analysis, free from external influences such as the author's intentions or the reader's emotions.
Practical Criticism: Overview and Key Concepts
Practical Criticism is closely related to New Criticism but focuses more on the method and pedagogy of literary analysis. The term originates from I.A. Richards' book Practical Criticism (1929), in which he conducted experiments with students to analyze poems without prior knowledge of the authors or contexts. The aim was to train readers to approach texts without preconceived notions and to develop their interpretative skills purely through close reading.
Important Contributors to Practical Criticism
I.A. Richards
Role and Contributions: As the originator of Practical Criticism, I.A. Richards emphasized the need for students to engage directly with the text. His experiments showed that readers often bring biases and assumptions to their reading, which can obscure their understanding of the text. Richards’ approach was designed to strip away these biases and encourage a more objective analysis. His focus on the psychological and emotional effects of literature also influenced later developments in reader-response theory.
Key Concepts: Richards’ work highlighted the importance of training readers to focus on the text itself, promoting an analytical approach that seeks to uncover the multiple meanings within a work. His emphasis on the emotional and cognitive responses of readers laid the groundwork for exploring how literature affects individuals on a psychological level.
F.R. Leavis
Role and Contributions: F.R. Leavis, a British literary critic, was a key figure in developing Practical Criticism as a method of literary analysis. Leavis emphasized the importance of moral seriousness in literature and believed that criticism should focus on evaluating the moral and ethical implications of a text. His approach combined close reading with a consideration of a work’s moral and cultural significance, which he believed were inseparable from its formal elements.
Key Concepts: Leavis insisted that literary criticism should serve as a guide for moral and ethical judgment, reflecting his belief in the intrinsic connection between form and content. His work emphasized the importance of teaching students to engage critically with literature, not just for its aesthetic qualities but for its contribution to moral understanding.
Conclusion
Both New Criticism and Practical Criticism revolutionized the study of literature by emphasizing the importance of close reading and the autonomy of the text. New Criticism, with its focus on formalism and objective analysis, rejected the influence of external contexts in interpreting literature, while Practical Criticism developed methods for teaching and applying these principles in a pedagogical setting. Together, these approaches have left a lasting legacy in literary studies, shaping the way literature is taught and analyzed to this day.